Error handling

Let's take a look at one of the defining features of Inko: its approach to error handling, inspired by the article "The Error Model". To explain this, we'll transform our "Hello, World!" program from the "Hello, World!" guide into a program that writes the message to a file, reads it back, then writes it to STDOUT.

"Hello, World!" using files

We'll start with the following code:

import std::fs::file::ReadWriteFile

class async Main {
  fn async main {

  }
}

Instead of importing STDOUT we import ReadWriteFile. This is a type used for both reading and writing from and to a file. The std::fs::file module also provides a type for just reading files (ReadOnlyFile), and a type for just writing files (WriteOnlyFile). In our case we need both, hence the use of ReadWriteFile.

Next we'll need to create our file:

import std::fs::file::ReadWriteFile

class async Main {
  fn async main {
    let file = ReadWriteFile.new('hello.txt').expect('failed to create the file')
  }
}

ReadWriteFile.new('hello.txt') creates a new instance of the ReadWriteFile type and tells it to try and open the file hello.txt, creating it if it doesn't exist.

Creating a file may fail, such as when you don't have permissions to do so. As such, the new method returns a Result[ReadWriteFile, Error], where Error is the std::io::Error type:

fn pub static new(path: IntoPath) -> Result[ReadWriteFile, Error] {
  # ...
}

The Result type is a regular algebraic type, similar to Option. To use the underlying value, we have to pattern match against the Result value.

Errors can be handled in a few different ways. The most verbose approach is to pattern match using match:

match ReadWriteFile.new('hello.txt') {
  case Ok(file) -> ...
  case Error(error) -> ...
}

We can also use the try keyword to return a new Result containing the error value, if an error occurred:

try ReadWriteFile.new('hello.txt')

try is only available if the surrounding method or closure's return type is a Result or Option. try expr works as follows:

If expr is a Result and the case is Error, return the Error case, otherwise unwrap the Ok.
If expr is an Option and the case is None, return a None, otherwise unwrap the Some.

For example, this:

let result: Result[Int, String] = Result.Ok(42)

try result

Is the same as this:

let result: Result[Int, String] = Result.Ok(42)

match result {
  case Ok(val) -> val
  case Error(err) -> return Result.Error(err)
}

We can also use methods, such as unwrap and expect, to get the underlying value and panic if an error is encountered:

ReadWriteFile.new('hello.txt').unwrap           # Panic with a default error message
ReadWriteFile.new('hello.txt').expect('oh no!') # Panic with the given message

In general you'll want to avoid using unwrap and related methods in libraries, and only use it in executables if you're certain the error won't occur or there's no better option than terminating the program in the event of an error.

For the sake of brevity we'll use expect in the rest of this guide.

Moving on, let's write the message to the file:

import std::fs::file::ReadWriteFile

class async Main {
  fn async main {
    let file = ReadWriteFile.new('hello.txt').expect('failed to create the file')

    file.write_string('Hello, World!').expect('failed to write to the file')
  }
}

Again the operation can fail, such as when the file is removed after creating it, and so again we must handle any errors. And again, for the sake of simplicity, we'll just abort in the event we encounter an error.

If you now save the above code and run it, you'll end up with a file called hello.txt in the current working directory, containing the text "Hello, World!".

Let's combine this with writing the message back to STDOUT. For this we'll need to import STDOUT again:

import std::fs::file::ReadWriteFile
import std::stdio::STDOUT

class async Main {
  fn async main {
    let file = ReadWriteFile.new('hello.txt').expect('failed to create the file')

    file.write_string('Hello, World!').expect('failed to write to the file')
  }
}

Now we'll need to read the contents back from the file. First we must rewind it, as reading continues where the last write (or read) ended; then we must read the contents into a ByteArray:

import std::fs::file::ReadWriteFile
import std::stdio::STDOUT

class async Main {
  fn async main {
    let file = ReadWriteFile.new('hello.txt').expect('failed to create the file')

    file.write_string('Hello, World!').expect('failed to write to the file')
    file.seek(0).expect('failed to rewind the file cursor')

    let bytes = ByteArray.new

    file.read_all(bytes).expect('failed to read the file')
  }
}

Here we rewind to the start using file.seek(0).expect(...), aborting if we encounter an error. After that we read the entire file into a ByteArray. As the name suggests, ByteArray is a type that stores bytes. Since files can contain virtually anything, reads operate on byte arrays instead of using strings.

To write the bytes back to STDOUT, we can use the write_bytes method:

import std::fs::file::ReadWriteFile
import std::stdio::STDOUT

class async Main {
  fn async main {
    let file = ReadWriteFile.new('hello.txt').expect('failed to create the file')

    file.write_string('Hello, World!').expect('failed to write to the file')
    file.seek(0).expect('failed to rewind the file cursor')

    let bytes = ByteArray.new

    file.read_all(bytes).expect('failed to read the file')
    STDOUT.new.write_bytes(bytes).expect('failed to write to STDOUT')
  }
}

We now have a little program that writes "Hello, World!" to a file, reads it back, then writes it to STDOUT. But what's missing is removing the file once we're done. And so for our next trick we'll make hello.txt disappear:

import std::fs::file::(ReadWriteFile, remove)
import std::stdio::STDOUT

class async Main {
  fn async main {
    let file = ReadWriteFile.new('hello.txt').expect('failed to create the file')

    file.write_string('Hello, World!').expect('failed to write to the file')
    file.seek(0).expect('failed to rewind the file cursor')

    let bytes = ByteArray.new

    file.read_all(bytes).expect('failed to read the file')
    STDOUT.new.write_bytes(bytes).expect('failed to write to STDOUT')

    let _ = remove(file.path)
  }
}

Removing files is done using the method std::fs::file.remove, which we now import along with the ReadWriteFile type. Because failing to remove the file isn't a big deal, we ignore the Result returned by it by assigning it to _.

Tip

At the moment, the compiler doesn't enforce using a Result when it's returned. In the future it will be an error to ignore Result values. To future-proof your code, make sure to assign Result values that can be ignored to _.

Producing errors

When using the Result type for error handling, there are two ways we can signal an error:

Using a regular return: return Result.Error('oh no!')
Using the throw keyword: throw 'oh no!'

Using throw x is the same as return Result.Error(x), but saves you a bit of typing.

If a method returns an Option, the throw keyword can't be used as the None case of Option doesn't wrap a value. In this case you have to use a regular return Option.None.

The cost of error handling

Error handling involves pattern matching, which does incur a runtime cost, though the cost may not matter much on modern hardware with good branch predictors. Result types are also heap allocated at the moment, but we hope to optimise this away in future releases.

Errors that abort execution

Inko has two types of errors: those than can be handled at runtime using try or match, and critical errors that abort the program. Such an error is called a "panic", and is used for errors that shouldn't be handled by the developer.

An example of a panic is when you divide by zero, or when accessing an out of bounds index in an array. Both cases are the result of incorrect code, and as such all we can do is abort.

As a rule of thumb, panics should only be used when they can be triggered as the result of incorrect code, or if there's nothing you can do other than to abort (e.g. when your program requires a file to exist, but the file is missing).