Types and methods

Inko provides two kinds of types: classes and traits. In this chapter we'll take a look at how to define and use such types.

Classes

Classes store state and provide methods, and are created using the class keyword:

class Person {
  let @name: String
  let @age: Int
}

Instances of classes are created using the class literal syntax:

Person { @name = 'Alice', @age = 42 }

When creating an instance, all fields must be assigned a value, and a field can't be assigned a value multiple times.

Classes don't support inheritance, and instead rely on traits to provide reusable behaviour.

Classes come in three forms: regular classes, enum classes, and async classes. Enum classes are algebraic data types created using the class enum syntax, and its variants are specified using the case keyword:

class enum Error {
  case FileDoesntExit
  case PermissionDenied
}

When pattern matching against enum classes, the compiler ensures the match is exhaustive.

Async classes are created using the class async syntax and are used to define and spawn processes. This is covered in greater detail in the Concurrency chapter.

Methods

Methods may be defined when defining the class or when reopening it:

class Person {
  let @name: String
  let @age: Int

  fn name -> String {
    @name
  }
}

impl Person {
  fn age -> Int {
    @age
  }
}

The default return type of a method is Nil. When the return type is Nil, any expression implicitly returned in the method is ignored:

fn example {
  42
}

example # => nil

If a method is defined as returning Nil, you can't explicitly return a value that isn't Nil:

fn example {
  return 42 # => Compile-time error
}

For enum classes the compiler generates a static method for each variant, using the same name as the variant:

class enum Error {
  case FileDoesntExit
  case PermissionDenied
}

Error.FileDoesntExit # Same as Error.FileDoesntExit()

Fields

Fields are private by default. You can make them public using let pub:

class Person {
  let pub @name: String
  let pub @age: Int
}

Fields are accessed using the same syntax as method calls, making it easier to replace them with methods, without having to change every line that uses the fields:

let alice = Person { @name = 'Alice', @age = 42 }

alice.name # => 'Alice'
alice.age  # => 42

Enum classes can't define custom fields.

Traits

Traits are a sort of contract for classes to adhere to: a trait can specify one or more required methods as well as default methods. A class implementing a trait must implement the required methods, and is automatically given a copy of the default methods; unless the class overrides the implementation. Traits may also list other traits a class must implement.

A simple example of a trait is std.string.ToString, defined as follows:

trait pub ToString {
  fn pub to_string -> String
}

A class implementing this trait must provide a to_string implementation compatible with the one of the trait. Here's what such an implementation might look like:

import std.string.ToString

class Person {
  let @name: String
  let @age: Int
}

impl ToString for Person {
  fn pub to_string -> String {
    @name
  }
}

A class can only implement a trait once.

Visibility

Types, methods, and fields are private by default. When something is private, it's only available to modules defined in the same root namespace. For example, a private class defined in std.foo is available to the modules std, std.bar and std.foo.bar (because their namespaces all start with std), but not to the module http.

You can make something public using the pub keyword. For example, a public method is defined as follows:

fn pub foo {
  # ...
}

A private type can't be used in the signature of a public method or field. Private types can define public methods, which in practise means they're the same as private methods. This is allowed so private types can implement traits that expose public methods, without requiring the type to also be public.

Core types

Inko provides various core types, such as String, Int, and Array.

Some of these types are value types, which means that when they are moved a copy is created and then moved. This allows you to continue using the original value after moving it.

Array

Array is a contiguous growable array type and can store any value, as long as all values in the array are of the same type.

Bool

Inko's boolean type is Bool. Instances of Bool are created using true and false.

Bool is a value type.

ByteArray

ByteArray is similar to Array, except it's optimised for storing bytes. A ByteArray needs less memory compared to an Array, but can only store Int values in the range of 0 up to (and including) 255.

Channel

Channel is used for sending values between processes, and allows multiple processes to send and receive values concurrently.

Channel is a value type.

Float

The Float class is used for IEEE 754 double-precision floating point numbers.

Float is a value type.

Int

The Int class is used for integers. Integers are 64 bits signed integers.

Int is a value type.

Map

Map is a hash map and can store key-value pairs of any type, as long as the keys implement the traits std.hash.Hash and std.cmp.Equal.

Nil

Nil is Inko's unit type, and used to signal the complete lack of a value. The difference with Option is that a value of type Nil can only ever be Nil, not something else. Nil is used as the default return type of methods, and in some cases can be used to explicitly ignore the result of an expression (e.g. in pattern matching bodies).

Nil is a value type.

Option

Option is an algebraic data type/enum class used to represent an optional value. It has two variants: Some(T) and None, with None signalling the lack of a value.

Result

Result is an algebraic data type/enum class used for error handling. It has two variants: Ok(T) and Error(E). The Ok variant signals the success of an operation, while Error signals an error occurred.

String

The String class is used for strings. Strings are UTF-8 encoded immutable strings. Internally strings are represented such that they can be efficiently passed to C code, at the cost of one extra byte of overhead per string.

String uses atomic reference counting when copying. This means that ten copies of a 1 GiB String only require 1 GiB of memory.

String is a value type.

Never

Never is a type that indicates something never happens. When used as a return type, it means the method never returns. An example of this is std.process.panic(): this method panics and thus returns a Never.

You'll likely never need to use this type directly.

Generic types

Types can be made generic, allowing them to operate on a wide range of types. For example, here's how you'd might define a generic linked list:

class Node[T] {
  let @next: Option[Node[T]]
  let @value: T
}

class List[T] {
  let @head: Option[Node[T]]
  let @tail: Option[mut Node[T]]
}

Classes, traits, methods and variants can all be made generic.

When defining type parameters, you can specify a set of traits that must be implemented for a type to be compatible with the type parameter. For example:

import std.string.ToString

class Container[T: ToString] {
  # ...
}

Here only types that implement ToString can be assigned to T.

You can use the mut requirement to limit the types to those that allow mutations:

class Container[T: mut] {
  let @value: T
}

# This is OK, because `Array[Int]` is mutable.
Container { @value = [10, 20] }

let nums = [10, 20]

# This isn't OK, because `ref Array[Int]` doesn't allow mutations.
Container { @value = ref nums }

If a type parameter doesn't specify the mut requirement, you can't create mutable references to values of the type:

class Container[T] {
  let @value: T

  fn mut mutate {
    # This will produce a compile-time error, because `T` doesn't specify the
    # `mut` requirement.
    mut @value
  }
}

Type inference

Inko supports type inference, removing the need for type annotations in most cases. For example, the type signature of an Array can be inferred based on its usage:

# Here the compiler infers `a` as `Array[Int]`, because of the `push` below.
let a = []

a.push(42)

This works for any type, including generic types such as the Option type:

# `a` is inferred as `Option[Int]`.
let mut a = Option.None

a = Option.Some(42)

If a generic type can't be inferred, the compiler produces an error. In this case explicit type signatures are necessary:

let mut a: Option[Int] = Option.None

The prelude

Inko automatically imports certain symbols into your modules. These symbols are part of what is called "the prelude".

The prelude includes the following types and methods:

Symbol	Source module
Array	std.array
Boolean	std.bool
ByteArray	std.byte_array
Channel	std.channel
Float	std.float
Int	std.int
Map	std.map
Nil	std.nil
Option	std.option
Result	std.result
String	std.string
panic	std.process